Parts of Speech

Introduction: C.L. Wren's close analysis into the evolution of English grammar provides a valuable framework for understanding how our language has developed over time. From nouns to verbs and pronouns, Wren's study throws light on the transformation of English grammar and its impact on communication.

1. Nouns:

The evolution of noun cases in English has significantly shaped the structure of the language. From the complexities of Old English to the updated approach of Modern English, understanding these changes illuminates how meaning is conveyed through word order and prepositions.

1. Evolution of Noun Cases in English: In Old English, there were four cases for nouns, but only two have survived into Modern English. The functions of the two cases are performed by using prepositions and fixed word order. The remaining cases are the Common Case, which combines functions of the old Nominative and Accusative, and the Possessive or Genitive case, marked by the suffix "-s." For example:

   • Old English: "He told the man a lie." (Distinctive Dative form for "man" and Accusative for "lie" would be used in Old English)

   • Modern English: "He told the man a lie." (Same form for both "man" and "lie," serving multiple functions.)

2. Functions of Noun Cases in Modern English: Modern English relies on word order and prepositions to convey the functions previously expressed by distinct cases. For instance:

   • Old English: "He hit the man on the head." (Distinctive Dative and Accusative forms.)

   • Modern English: "He hit the man on the head." (Use of preposition "on" to clarify.)

3. Ambiguity and Word Order in Modern English: In Modern English, word order plays a crucial role in clarifying meaning. For example:

   • Correct: "He gave the king a book."

   • Incorrect: "He gave a book the king." (Unusual word order in English, leading to ambiguity. To make the meaning clear we have to use ‘to’.)

While Modern English has simplified its noun cases, it compensates through word order and prepositions to convey meaning clearly.

2.  Adjective:

The transformation of adjective forms in English reflects a simplification over time, with word order and prepositions now essential for indicating their function in sentences. Additionally, shifts in the case-function of personal pronouns demonstrate further linguistic evolution.

Evolution of Adjective Forms in English: Adjectives in English have lost their distinctive case-forms and the differentiation between singular and plural, unlike nouns. Thus, word order and prepositions now play a crucial role in indicating the function of an adjective in a sentence. In Old English, adjectives had separate forms for singular/plural and various cases, as well as distinctions between attributive and predicative usage. For instance:

1. • Old English: "Se gōda mann" (The good man, attributive) vs. "Se mann is gōd" (The man is good, predicative).

   • Modern English: Relies on word order and prepositions to convey the function of the adjective: "The man is good" (no distinct adjective forms).

2. Changes in Case-Function of Personal Pronouns: The case-function of personal pronouns has undergone less change since Old English times. Examples include:

   • "Me" serving as both Accusative and Dative in Old English, as it does in Modern English.

   • "Thee" maintaining its function since Old English.

   • "Him" performing both functions since the fourteenth century.

   • The replacement of the Old English Nominative "ye" with the Accusative "you" in the 2nd person plural, resulting in "you" being the sole form for all cases.

   • The plural pronoun "you" now serving as both singular and plural, replacing "thou" and "ye."

   • Survival of native forms like "em" in colloquial usage, descended from Old English "hem" (late Old English "heom"). The apostrophe in "em" is a printers' convention.

These changes show the simplification and streamlining of grammar in Modern English, with word order and prepositions taking on more significant roles in conveying meaning.

(3) Evolution of Verb Structure: Changes in Word Order

A significant change in verbs is the shift in word-order, departing from Old English's practice of placing the verb at the end of sentences. The original Indo-European order, resembling German, placed the verb at the end, a practice mostly ceased in Modern English.

A) Tendency for Post-Sentence Addition:

The tendency to add words after completing a sentence, as seen in colloquial speech, contributed to this change. For example, instead of saying ,"The man I was telling you about came yesterday," colloquially one might say,

'He came yesterday—the man I was telling you about.'

B) Loss of Subjunctive Mood:

The most significant change in verb form is the near disappearance of the Subjunctive Mood in Modern English. The Old English subjunctive endings (-e and -en) functions—expressing hypothesis and wish—persist, but the morphological distinction has practically disappeared.

C) Middle English Evolution:

During the Middle English period, the loss of weak verbal endings led to the subjunctive becoming indistinguishable from the indicative. It gradually fell out of common use, surviving mainly in fixed expressions and formal language.

D) Survival in Certain Expressions:

 Expressions like "if I were you" and "if it be possible" survive because the indicative and subjunctive forms in the verb "to be" didn't closely converge. However, expressions like "if he come" or "had I been there" survive more formally, solemnly, or in poetic usage.

E) Colloquial Adaptations:

Colloquially, adaptations like "if he comes" and "if I had been there" are more commonly used, reflecting the general convergence of indicative and subjunctive forms in most verbs, except in the 3rd person singular.

F) Periphrastic Optatives in Modern English:

Loss of distinctive subjunctive forms in Modern English led to ambiguity in expressing wishes, beliefs, etc. To address this, auxiliary forms like "may" and "might" are used for periphrastic optatives. For example,

1. In Old English, "Ic gelèfe pæt he cume" transforms into Modern English as "I believe that he might come."

 2. Similarly, the Old English expression "Ic wilnige part he cume" becomes the Modern English "I wish that he MAY come."

G) Role of Auxiliary Verbs:

Auxiliary verbs such as "may," "might," "should," and "would" are commonly used in Modern English to mitigate ambiguity caused by the loss of distinct subjunctive verb-endings.

Evolution of Relative Pronoun:

(5) Relative Pronoun Evolution:

The oldest existing relative pronoun in English is "that" (Old English "þæt"). Originally, "that" functioned as a particle or indeclinable word without case distinctions, commonly used until the Renaissance.

Introduction of "who" and Ambiguity Resolution:

During the Renaissance, "who" emerged as a newer relative pronoun, temporarily preferred in written language. The preference for "who" partly stemmed from its similarity to Latin usage, where relative and interrogative pronouns often share forms.

Shift from Ambiguity in "that":

Due to ambiguity arising from the absence of case distinctions in "that," Chaucer's time saw occasional substitutions with the Genitive "whose" and Dative "whom." Over time, this tendency extended to the Nominative case, leading to the coexistence of "who" and "that" from the sixteenth century.

Simultaneous Roles of "who":

From the sixteenth century onward, "who" served as both an interrogative pronoun and a relative pronoun in English.

Evolution of Interrogative Pronouns:

The interrogative pronoun "who" is transformed into a relative pronoun. Simultaneously, the originally interrogative adjective "which" (Old English "hwyle") also began to function as a relative pronoun.

Parallel Usage in the Sixteenth Century:

In the sixteenth century, "who" and "which" were both used as alternative relative pronouns in literature. The old relative pronoun "that" continued in full colloquial practice during this period. The Lord's Prayer in the Anglican version began with "Our Father which art in heaven," showcasing the use of "which" as a relative pronoun. In contrast, the Roman Catholic Douai-Rheims rendering used "who": "Our Father who art in heaven.”

Evolution of Usage in the Sixteenth Century and further:

• In the Latinizing sixteenth century, "that" was somewhat excluded from higher literary language.

• The seventeenth-century literary efforts, like those of Dryden, aimed to elevate colloquial usage, bringing "that" back into literary usage.

• In the early eighteenth century, Steele criticized the use of "that" in favour of "who" and "which" in one of his Spectator essays, viewing it as a lapse into barbarism.

• Since Dryden's time, "who," "which," and "that" have become almost interchangeable in both written and spoken language. However, "that" is less preferred when referring back to persons.

• A clearer distinction emerged since Dryden's time: "Who" is used for persons and animate subjects.

• "Which" is restricted to animals and inanimate things.

• Limitation on "That": "That" lacks case-forms beyond the Nominative, preventing the use of a Genitive or Dative equivalent.

• To express  possession or direction, prepositions like "of" or "to" must follow "that" with intervening words. E.g. "The man that I was speaking of" or "The man that I was speaking to.” 

Omission of Relative Pronoun:

 Since Old English, especially in the North, it has been common to omit the relative pronoun if the context clarifies the meaning.This practice has spread into both colloquial and received language.

 Colloquial expressions, like "The man I met yesterday," have influenced literary language. Instead of saying "The man that (or more formally whom) I met yesterday," the colloquial form is preferred.

 Nominative "Who" for Objective "Whom:

 In both colloquial and literary language, there's a tendency to use the Nominative "who" for the Objective or Accusative "whom." E. g. "Who do you mean?" is favored over the more formal "Whom do you mean?" except in formal contexts.

 Emphatic Use of Object Pronouns

 There's a general trend to use object pronouns (me, him, her) in emphatic positions instead of the nominatives (I, he, she). E,g, “It is I”. ( formal and correct) but examples include "It's me," "It was her," or "I knew it was him.” (Informal and correct)

 (6) Evolution of Present Participle (-ing):

  Old English had specific endings (in-ende) for present participles.

  Middle English expanded this into -inde, with Norse-ande in Scandinavianized regions.

 Verbal Noun in -ing in Old English:

  In Old English, a form of verbal noun ending in -ing existed alongside the participial endings.

  Example: "biting" (the act of biting) from the verb "bitan" (bite) had this form. .

 Transition to Middle English:

 The verbal noun form from Old English, derived from the inflected type ending in -inga, transitioned to Middle English. Influenced by the historical participial ending -inde, it became -inge and served as both present participle and verbal noun.

 Later Development in Middle English:

 Later Middle English saw words like "bitinge" (Old English inflected form bitinga) functioning as both participle and verbal noun. Modern English exclusively uses the -ing form for present participle and verbal noun.

 Example in Modern English:

  "Bearing" can be both a present participle and a verbal noun.

  Examples: 'He is bearing his burdens well,' 'His bearing was soldierly,' and 'Bearing pain is good for the spirit.’

Conclusion:

We develop a richer understanding of how language evolves after studying C.L. Wren's observations on English grammar. Wren's work acts as a torch, guiding us about the complexities of English grammar as we explore its ever-changing nature.